Study glossary

Academic terms explained briefly and precisely: academic writing, research methods, qualitative analysis, statistics, exams and learning.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Z

ABD (all but dissertation): ABD describes a US doctoral student who has completed all requirements except the dissertation, i.e. coursework and qualifying exams. It is an informal status, not a degree.
Abductive reasoning: Abductive reasoning infers the most plausible explanation for a surprising observation, moving back and forth between data and theory. It is used in qualitative research and theory building.
Abstract: An abstract is a short, self-contained summary of a paper or thesis, usually 150–300 words. It states the research problem, methods, key findings and conclusion so readers can decide quickly whether to read the full text. Read more →
Academic advisor: An academic advisor is a staff or faculty member who helps students plan their course of study, choose a major, meet degree requirements and navigate academic policies.
Academic database: An academic database is a searchable index of scholarly literature, often subject-specific, that lets users filter by keywords, date, peer review and document type. University libraries provide access through subscriptions.
Academic integrity: Academic integrity is the commitment to honesty, trust, fairness, respect and responsibility in learning and research. Violations include plagiarism, cheating, fabrication, falsification and unauthorized collaboration. Read more →
Academic misconduct: Academic misconduct is any action that gives a student an unfair academic advantage, such as plagiarism, cheating, collusion, contract cheating or fabrication. Penalties range from a failing grade to expulsion. Read more →
Academic probation: Academic probation is a warning status for students whose GPA falls below a minimum standard, often 2.0. If performance does not improve within a set period, the student may be suspended or dismissed.
Academic register: Academic register is the formal style of language used in scholarly writing: precise vocabulary, objective tone, hedged claims, clear structure and no colloquialisms or contractions.
Academic suspension (academic dismissal): Academic suspension is a temporary, and academic dismissal a permanent, separation from a university because of continued poor academic performance or serious misconduct. Students can often appeal or apply for reinstatement.
Academic year: The academic year is the annual period of study, usually running from late August or September to May or June in the US and UK, divided into semesters, quarters or terms.
Accommodations (reasonable adjustments): Accommodations, called reasonable adjustments in the UK, are changes that give students with disabilities equal access, such as extra exam time, a separate room or note-taking support. They are arranged through the disability services office.
Accreditation: Accreditation is an external quality review that confirms a college, university or program meets established standards. In the US it is carried out by recognized accrediting agencies and is needed for federal financial aid eligibility.
Active recall: Active recall is a study technique in which learners close their notes and try to reproduce information from memory before checking. It is a practical form of retrieval practice. Read more →
Add/drop period: The add/drop period is the first week or two of a term during which students can add or drop courses without academic or financial penalty. After it, withdrawing usually results in a W on the transcript.
AI hallucination: An AI hallucination is a confident but false output of a generative AI tool, such as an invented fact, a misattributed quote or a reference that does not exist. Students must verify every AI-provided fact and source in the original. Read more →
Alternative hypothesis (H1): The alternative hypothesis states that there is an effect, difference or relationship in the population. It is supported indirectly when the null hypothesis is rejected. Read more →
Analysis ToolPak (Excel): The Analysis ToolPak is an Excel add-in that runs basic statistical procedures such as descriptive statistics, t-tests, ANOVA and regression. It provides no assumption checks or effect sizes, so it suits exercises better than dissertation analyses. Read more →
Anchor example: An anchor example is a typical text passage included in a codebook to illustrate a category. It shows coders what a clear-cut case looks like. Read more →
ANCOVA (analysis of covariance): ANCOVA combines ANOVA and regression to compare group means while statistically controlling for one or more continuous covariates, such as prior achievement. Read more →
Anki: Anki is a flashcard program with a configurable spaced repetition scheduler, including the FSRS algorithm. It is free on desktop, web and Android and widely used for medicine, law and languages. Read more →
Annotated bibliography: An annotated bibliography is a list of sources in which each citation is followed by a short paragraph (the annotation) that summarizes and evaluates the source and explains its relevance to the research topic.
Annotation (reading): Annotation is marking up a text while reading with comments, questions, summaries and connections in the margins. It promotes active reading more than highlighting alone. Read more →
Anonymity: Anonymity means that no one, including the researcher, can link data to a participant’s identity. Anonymous surveys collect no names or identifying details; interview data are usually confidential rather than anonymous. Read more →
Anonymization: Anonymization is the irreversible removal or alteration of identifying information so that data can no longer be linked to an individual. Fully anonymized data fall outside data protection laws such as the GDPR. Read more →
ANOVA (analysis of variance): ANOVA tests whether the means of three or more groups differ by comparing variance between groups with variance within groups. A significant F-test is followed by post hoc tests to locate the differences. Read more →
APA style: APA style is the citation and formatting style of the American Psychological Association, now in its 7th edition (2020). It uses author–date citations such as (Lee, 2022) and is standard in psychology, education, nursing and many social sciences. Read more →
Appendix: An appendix is supplementary material placed after the reference list, such as questionnaires, interview guides, coding frames or additional tables. It supports the main text without interrupting it; multiple appendices are labeled A, B, C.
Argumentative essay: An argumentative essay is an essay that takes a clear position on a debatable issue and supports it with evidence while addressing counterarguments. It is a standard assignment in US first-year composition courses.
Associate degree: An associate degree is a two-year US undergraduate degree, usually from a community college, that can lead directly to employment or transfer to a four-year bachelor’s program.
ATLAS.ti: ATLAS.ti is a commercial qualitative data analysis program for desktop and web. It treats coded segments as quotations, supports codes, memos and networks for visualising relationships, and is used for thematic analysis and grounded theory. Read more →
Audit trail: An audit trail is a transparent record of all steps and decisions in a qualitative study, from raw data to codes and themes, so others can follow and assess the analysis. Read more →
Author–date system: The author–date system is a citation method in which sources are identified in the text by the author’s surname and year of publication, e.g. (Nguyen, 2020). APA, Harvard and Chicago author-date are examples.
Axial coding: Axial coding is the grounded theory phase (Strauss and Corbin) in which categories are related to their subcategories along conditions, actions and consequences. Read more →
Bachelor’s degree: A bachelor’s degree is the first university degree, typically four years in the US and three years in England (four in Scotland). Common types are the BA (Bachelor of Arts) and BSc/BS (Bachelor of Science).
Belmont Report: The Belmont Report (1979) is the foundational US document on research ethics. It sets out three principles — respect for persons, beneficence and justice — that underpin IRB review. Read more →
Between-subjects design: A between-subjects design assigns each participant to only one condition and compares different groups. It avoids order effects but requires more participants than a within-subjects design.
Bias (research): Bias is any systematic error in design, data collection, analysis or reporting that leads to results deviating from the truth. Examples are selection bias, response bias and confirmation bias.
Bibliography: A bibliography is a list of sources relevant to a work. Unlike a reference list, which includes only sources cited, a bibliography may also include works consulted; Chicago’s notes-bibliography style uses one at the end of the paper.
BibTeX: BibTeX is a file format (.bib) and tool for managing references in LaTeX. Each source is stored with a citation key, and LaTeX generates the bibliography in the chosen style; BibLaTeX with biber is a modern alternative. Read more →
Blinding: Blinding means keeping participants (single-blind) or both participants and researchers (double-blind) unaware of who receives which condition, to prevent expectations from biasing results.
Block quote: A block quote is a long direct quotation set off as an indented paragraph without quotation marks. APA uses it for quotations of 40 words or more; MLA for prose longer than four lines. Read more →
Bonferroni correction: The Bonferroni correction controls the familywise error rate by dividing the significance level by the number of tests, e.g. α = .05 / 5 = .01 for five comparisons. It is simple but conservative. Read more →
Boolean operators: Boolean operators are the words AND, OR and NOT used to combine search terms in databases. AND narrows a search, OR broadens it to synonyms and NOT excludes terms, e.g. (“test anxiety” OR “exam stress”) AND students.
Box plot (box-and-whisker plot): A box plot displays the median, quartiles and range of a variable, with whiskers typically extending to 1.5 × IQR and points beyond them shown as potential outliers. Read more →
Capstone project: A capstone project is a culminating assignment at the end of a degree program, often in the final semester, in which students apply what they have learned to a substantial problem. It may be a research paper, a design project or work with an external client.
Case study: A case study is an in-depth investigation of one or a few cases, such as a person, organization or event, in its real-life context using multiple data sources. It suits “how” and “why” questions. Read more →
Case summary: A case summary is a concise, systematic description of a single case, such as an interview, highlighting its key features with respect to the research question. It supports cross-case comparison.
Categorical variable: A categorical variable takes values that are categories or groups, such as nominal or ordinal variables. It is summarized with frequencies and analyzed with tests such as chi-square. Read more →
Category (qualitative analysis): A category is a group of codes or data segments that share a common meaning, at a higher level of abstraction than single codes. Categories are arranged hierarchically in a coding frame. Read more →
Causality: Causality is a cause-and-effect relationship in which a change in one variable produces a change in another. Establishing it requires covariation, temporal precedence and ruling out alternative explanations.
Central limit theorem: The central limit theorem states that the sampling distribution of the mean approaches a normal distribution as sample size increases, regardless of the population’s shape. It justifies many parametric tests for n of about 30 or more. Read more →
ChatGPT: ChatGPT is a general-purpose AI chatbot based on large language models. Whether and how students may use it for coursework depends on university and course policy; permitted use usually has to be disclosed. Read more →
Chi-square goodness-of-fit test: The chi-square goodness-of-fit test checks whether the observed distribution of one categorical variable matches an expected distribution, e.g. whether students choose four majors equally often. Read more →
Chi-square test: The chi-square (χ²) test of independence checks whether two categorical variables are associated by comparing observed with expected frequencies in a contingency table. Expected counts should generally be at least 5. Read more →
Chicago style: Chicago style is the citation system of The Chicago Manual of Style. It offers two variants: notes-bibliography, using footnotes or endnotes and common in history and the arts, and author-date, used in the sciences and social sciences. Read more →
Chunking: Chunking is grouping individual pieces of information into larger meaningful units so they are easier to hold in working memory, e.g. remembering a phone number as three groups of digits.
Citation: A citation is a reference in the text that credits the source of an idea, quotation or data, linked to a full entry in the reference list. Consistent citation allows readers to verify claims and avoids plagiarism. Read more →
Citation chaining (snowballing): Citation chaining is finding literature by following references in a key source (backward chaining) and by looking up newer works that cite it (forward chaining). It complements keyword searches in databases.
Citation Style Language (CSL): The Citation Style Language is an open format that describes how citations and reference lists should look. Reference managers such as Zotero and Mendeley use CSL files to format references in APA, Harvard, MLA, Chicago and thousands of other styles. Read more →
Closed-ended question: A closed-ended question offers fixed response options, such as yes/no, multiple choice or rating scales. Answers are easy to analyze statistically but limit what respondents can say. Read more →
Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling randomly selects whole groups (clusters), such as classes or schools, and then studies all or some members of those clusters. It is efficient when a full population list is unavailable. Read more →
Code (qualitative research): A code is a short word or phrase assigned to a segment of qualitative data that captures its meaning or topic, such as “exam pressure” for a passage about stress before finals. Read more →
Codebook: A codebook is a document that lists all codes with their names, definitions, inclusion and exclusion criteria and examples. It makes coding consistent between researchers and transparent for readers. Read more →
Coding (qualitative data): Coding is the process of labeling segments of qualitative data with codes to organize and interpret them. It can be deductive (from theory) or inductive (from the data), and usually proceeds in several cycles. Read more →
Coding frame (category system): A coding frame is the structured set of main categories and subcategories used to classify qualitative data, central to qualitative content analysis. Read more →
Coding rule: A coding rule specifies how to decide borderline cases between categories, e.g. which code to assign when a passage mentions both stress and motivation. Read more →
Coding unit: A coding unit is the smallest segment of text that can be assigned to a category, such as a phrase, sentence or paragraph. Defining it in advance makes coding consistent. Read more →
Coefficient of determination (R²): R² is the proportion of variance in the dependent variable explained by a regression model, from 0 to 1. Adjusted R² corrects for the number of predictors. Read more →
Coefficient of variation: The coefficient of variation is the standard deviation divided by the mean, often expressed as a percentage. It allows variability to be compared across variables with different units or means.
Cohen’s d: Cohen’s d is an effect size for the difference between two means, expressed in standard deviation units. Cohen’s rough benchmarks are 0.2 small, 0.5 medium and 0.8 large. Read more →
Cohen’s kappa: Cohen’s kappa (κ) measures agreement between two raters on categorical data, corrected for chance agreement. Values range up to 1; above about .60 is often considered substantial and above .80 almost perfect agreement. Read more →
Cohort study: A cohort study follows a group of people who share a characteristic, such as year of birth or exposure, over time to see how outcomes develop. It is common in epidemiology.
Collusion: Collusion is unauthorized collaboration in which students work together on an assignment meant to be completed individually, or knowingly allow others to copy their work. Read more →
Commencement: Commencement is the US graduation ceremony at which degrees are formally conferred. In the UK the ceremony is usually called graduation.
Concept map: A concept map is a diagram of concepts connected by labeled arrows that state their relationships, e.g. “sample — is drawn from → population.” Unlike a mind map it can show cross-links. Read more →
Conceptual framework: A conceptual framework is a visual or written model of the key concepts in a study and the relationships the researcher assumes between them. It is often derived from the literature and the theoretical framework.
Conclusion (academic paper): The conclusion is the final section of an academic paper that answers the research question, summarizes key findings, discusses implications and limitations and suggests directions for future research without introducing new evidence.
Conference paper: A conference paper is a research paper presented at an academic conference and often published in proceedings. In computer science and engineering, peer-reviewed conference papers are major publication venues.
Confidence interval (CI): A confidence interval is a range of values that, under repeated sampling, would contain the true population parameter in a stated proportion of cases, usually 95%. Narrow intervals indicate precise estimates. Read more →
Confidentiality: Confidentiality is the obligation to protect participants’ information from unauthorized disclosure, for example by restricting access to data and not reporting identifying details. Read more →
Confirmability: Confirmability is the qualitative counterpart of objectivity: the degree to which findings are shaped by the data rather than the researcher’s bias, supported by audit trails and reflexivity. Read more →
Confirmation bias: Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek, interpret and remember information in ways that confirm existing beliefs. In research it can distort literature searches and data interpretation.
Confounding variable (confounder): A confounding variable is a third variable related to both the independent and dependent variable that can create a spurious association between them. Random assignment and statistical control reduce confounding.
Consensus coding: Consensus coding is a procedure in which coders code independently, then discuss discrepancies until they agree on the final coding. It is an alternative to statistical agreement measures. Read more →
Constant comparison: Constant comparison is the grounded theory technique of continually comparing data with data, data with codes and codes with categories to refine concepts and their properties. Read more →
Construct: A construct is an abstract concept that cannot be observed directly, such as intelligence, motivation or anxiety. It is measured indirectly through operationalized indicators or scales. Read more →
Construct validity: Construct validity is the extent to which a test or scale actually measures the theoretical construct it is intended to measure. It is supported by convergent and discriminant evidence, e.g. a new anxiety scale correlating with established anxiety measures but not with intelligence. Read more →
Content analysis: Content analysis is a research method for systematically analyzing communication content. Quantitative content analysis counts the frequency of predefined categories; qualitative content analysis interprets meaning. Read more →
Content validity: Content validity is the extent to which a measure covers all relevant aspects of the construct. It is usually judged by experts, e.g. whether an exam samples all topics of the syllabus. Read more →
Contingency table (crosstab): A contingency table displays the joint frequencies of two or more categorical variables in rows and columns. It is the basis for the chi-square test and measures such as Cramér’s V. Read more →
Continuous variable: A continuous variable can take any value within a range, such as height or time. In practice, interval and ratio variables are often treated as continuous in statistical analysis. Read more →
Contract cheating: Contract cheating is outsourcing academic work to a third party, such as an essay mill, a paid writer or another student, and submitting it as one’s own. It is among the most serious forms of academic misconduct. Read more →
Control group: A control group is the group in an experiment that does not receive the intervention, or receives a placebo or standard condition, providing a baseline for comparison.
Control variable: A control variable is a variable held constant or statistically accounted for so that it does not distort the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling selects participants who are easy to reach, such as classmates or social media followers. It is quick and cheap but limits generalizability because the sample is likely biased. Read more →
Convergent validity: Convergent validity is shown when a measure correlates strongly with other measures of the same or closely related constructs. It is one component of construct validity.
Core category: The core category is the central concept in a grounded theory that relates to most other categories and explains the main pattern of behavior in the data. Read more →
Cornell notes (Cornell method): The Cornell method divides a page into a narrow cue column, a wider notes area and a summary section at the bottom. After class, students write questions in the cue column and use them to quiz themselves. Read more →
Correlation: Correlation describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, expressed by a coefficient between −1 and +1. Correlation does not imply causation. Read more →
Counterargument: A counterargument is a reasonable objection to the writer’s thesis that the writer acknowledges and then rebuts or concedes. Addressing counterarguments strengthens persuasive and argumentative writing.
Counterbalancing: Counterbalancing varies the order in which participants experience conditions in a within-subjects design, so practice, fatigue and other order effects cancel out across the sample.
Course withdrawal (W grade): A course withdrawal is leaving a course after the add/drop deadline but before the withdrawal deadline. The course appears on the transcript with a W, which does not affect the GPA.
Coursework: Coursework is assessed work completed during a course, such as essays, reports, problem sets and projects, as opposed to end-of-term examinations.
Covariance: Covariance measures how two variables vary together: positive if they increase together, negative if one rises as the other falls. Unlike correlation, it depends on the variables’ units. Read more →
Cramér’s V: Cramér’s V is an effect size for the strength of association between two nominal variables, ranging from 0 (no association) to 1 (perfect association). It is reported with the chi-square test. Read more →
Cramming (massed practice): Cramming is intensive studying in a short period right before an exam. It may help short-term recall but leads to rapid forgetting compared with spaced study. Read more →
Credibility: Credibility is the qualitative counterpart of internal validity: confidence that the findings accurately represent participants’ realities. Strategies include prolonged engagement, triangulation, member checking and peer debriefing. Read more →
Credit hour (semester credit hour): A US credit hour represents roughly one hour of classroom instruction plus about two hours of out-of-class work per week over a semester of about 15 weeks. A typical full-time load is 12–15 credit hours per semester. Read more →
Credit transfer: Credit transfer is the recognition of credits earned at one institution toward a degree at another. The receiving institution decides which courses are equivalent and how many credits count.
Criterion validity: Criterion validity is the extent to which scores on a measure correlate with an external criterion. It is called concurrent validity if measured at the same time and predictive validity if the criterion lies in the future. Read more →
Critical thinking: Critical thinking is the disciplined analysis and evaluation of arguments and evidence: identifying assumptions, checking reasoning, weighing alternatives and reaching well-supported judgments. It is a core learning outcome in higher education.
Cronbach’s alpha: Cronbach’s alpha is a coefficient of internal consistency indicating how closely the items of a scale are related. Values of about .70 or higher are usually considered acceptable, though very high values can signal redundant items. Read more →
Cross-case analysis: Cross-case analysis compares several cases to identify similarities, differences and patterns, for example in multiple case studies or interview studies. Read more →
Cross-sectional study: A cross-sectional study collects data from a sample at a single point in time. It describes prevalence and associations but cannot establish temporal order or causality.
Cumulative GPA: The cumulative GPA is the weighted average of grade points across all courses a student has taken at an institution, as opposed to the GPA for a single term. It appears on the transcript and determines honors and probation. Read more →
Data management plan: A data management plan describes how research data will be collected, stored, secured, documented, shared and archived during and after a project. Many funders and universities require one.
Dean’s list: The dean’s list is an academic honor recognizing undergraduates who achieve a high term GPA, often 3.5 or above, while taking a full course load. Criteria vary by institution.
Debriefing: Debriefing is informing participants after a study about its true purpose, especially if deception was used, answering questions and addressing any distress caused. Read more →
Deception (research): Deception is deliberately withholding or misrepresenting information about a study’s purpose. It is permitted only when necessary, when risks are minimal and when participants are debriefed afterward.
Dedoose: Dedoose is a browser-based program for qualitative and mixed-methods analysis. Projects are stored online, which makes team coding easy; excerpts can be linked to participant descriptors such as survey data. Read more →
Deductive coding: Deductive coding applies codes derived beforehand from theory, prior research or the interview guide to the data. It is efficient and theory-driven but may overlook unexpected insights. Read more →
Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning moves from general premises or theories to specific predictions that are then tested with data. It is typical of hypothesis-testing quantitative research.
Degree classification (UK honours classification): Degree classification is the UK system for grading bachelor’s degrees with honours: First (usually 70%+), Upper Second or 2:1 (60–69%), Lower Second or 2:2 (50–59%) and Third (40–49%). Many employers and graduate programs ask for at least a 2:1.
Degrees of freedom (df): Degrees of freedom are the number of values in a calculation that are free to vary. They determine the shape of the t, F and chi-square distributions, e.g. df = n − 1 for a one-sample t-test. Read more →
Deliberate practice: Deliberate practice is focused, effortful practice on specific weaknesses with immediate feedback, aimed at improving performance rather than repeating what one can already do.
Dependability: Dependability is the qualitative counterpart of reliability: the consistency and traceability of the research process, documented e.g. through an audit trail of decisions. Read more →
Dependent variable: A dependent variable is the outcome a researcher measures to see whether it is affected by the independent variable, such as exam scores in a study comparing teaching methods.
Descriptive research: Descriptive research systematically describes the characteristics of a population or phenomenon, such as how many students work part-time, without testing causal explanations.
Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics summarize and describe the features of a dataset using measures of central tendency, variability, frequencies, tables and charts, without generalizing beyond the sample. Read more →
Desirable difficulties: Desirable difficulties are learning conditions that feel harder in the moment but improve long-term retention, such as spacing, interleaving and retrieval practice (Bjork). Read more →
Dichotomous variable (binary variable): A dichotomous variable has exactly two categories, such as pass/fail or yes/no. It is often coded 0/1 and is the outcome in logistic regression. Read more →
Direct quotation: A direct quotation reproduces another author’s exact words in quotation marks, with a citation including the page number. Long quotations (40+ words in APA) are formatted as an indented block quote without quotation marks. Read more →
Directional hypothesis: A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of an effect or relationship, e.g. “Group A scores higher than group B.” It can be tested with a one-tailed test, whereas a non-directional hypothesis only predicts a difference. Read more →
Discourse analysis: Discourse analysis studies how language in use constructs meanings, identities and power relations in texts and talk. Variants include critical discourse analysis and discursive psychology.
Discriminant validity (divergent validity): Discriminant validity is shown when a measure correlates only weakly with measures of constructs it should be distinct from. Together with convergent validity it supports construct validity.
Discussion section: The discussion section interprets the results of a study, relates them to the research question and prior literature, explains unexpected findings and addresses limitations and implications. It follows the results section in empirical papers.
Discussion section (recitation): A discussion section or recitation is a small weekly class attached to a large US lecture course, usually led by a teaching assistant, where students review material, solve problems and ask questions.
Dissertation: A dissertation is a long, independent research project submitted for a degree. In the US it normally refers to the PhD; in the UK it also means the final-year undergraduate or master’s project, typically 10,000–20,000 words.
Dissertation committee: A dissertation committee is the group of faculty members, typically three to five, who guide a doctoral student’s research, approve the proposal and evaluate the final dissertation and defense. It is chaired by the student’s advisor. Read more →
Document analysis: Document analysis is the systematic review and interpretation of existing documents such as reports, policies, websites or minutes as research data.
DOI (Digital Object Identifier): A DOI is a permanent unique identifier for a digital publication, such as 10.1037/amp0000191. It always resolves to the current location of the item; APA 7 requires DOIs written as URLs (https://doi.org/…) in references.
Double hermeneutic: The double hermeneutic describes the researcher making sense of participants making sense of their experience. It is a key idea in interpretative phenomenological analysis. Read more →
Double-barreled question: A double-barreled question asks about two things at once, e.g. “Was the course interesting and useful?”, so a single answer is ambiguous. It should be split into two questions. Read more →
Dual coding: Dual coding is combining words with visuals such as diagrams, timelines or graphs when learning. Information encoded both verbally and visually is easier to remember. Read more →
Dummy variable: A dummy variable is a binary 0/1 variable that represents membership in a category, used to include categorical predictors in regression. A variable with k categories needs k − 1 dummies. Read more →
Ecological validity: Ecological validity is the degree to which study conditions and tasks resemble real-life situations, so findings apply to everyday behavior. Lab studies often trade ecological validity for control.
ECTS (European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System): ECTS is the European credit system in which one credit represents 25–30 hours of total student workload and a full-time academic year equals 60 credits. It helps transfer credits between universities in Europe.
Edited volume: An edited volume is a book in which chapters by different authors are collected by one or more editors. In references you cite the specific chapter and its author, plus the editors and book title.
Effect size: An effect size quantifies the magnitude of a difference or relationship independent of sample size, e.g. Cohen’s d, r or η². APA style requires reporting effect sizes alongside significance tests. Read more →
Eisenhower matrix: The Eisenhower matrix sorts tasks into four quadrants by urgency and importance: do now, schedule, delegate and drop. It helps prioritize study and work tasks. Read more →
Elaborative interrogation: Elaborative interrogation is a learning strategy in which students ask themselves “why” and “how” questions about facts and explain the answers, linking new information to prior knowledge. Read more →
Elective: An elective is a course a student chooses freely rather than one required for their major or degree. Electives allow exploration of other interests.
Elicit: Elicit is an AI research assistant that searches academic papers and extracts information such as sample, method and findings into tables. Its results are a starting point; students should read and cite the original studies. Read more →
Empirical research: Empirical research answers questions by systematically collecting and analyzing observable data, such as surveys, experiments, interviews or observations, rather than by reasoning alone.
EndNote: EndNote is a commercial reference manager for Windows and macOS, often provided through university licences and common in medicine and health sciences. Cite While You Write inserts citations and builds the reference list in Word. Read more →
Endnotes: Endnotes are numbered notes collected at the end of a chapter or document instead of at the bottom of the page. They serve the same purpose as footnotes in note-based citation styles such as Chicago.
Epistemology: Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and limits of knowledge. In research it asks how we can know things about the world and what counts as valid evidence.
Essay: An essay is a short, argumentative piece of academic writing that answers a question or defends a thesis using evidence and reasoning. In UK higher education, essays are the most common form of coursework assessment in humanities and social sciences.
Et al.: Et al. (Latin et alii, “and others”) abbreviates a list of authors in citations. In APA 7, works with three or more authors are cited with the first author plus “et al.” from the first citation, e.g. (Garcia et al., 2021).
Eta squared (η²): Eta squared is an effect size in ANOVA giving the proportion of total variance in the dependent variable explained by a factor. Partial η² is reported for designs with several factors. Read more →
Ethnography: Ethnography is a qualitative research approach that studies a culture or community from the inside through prolonged fieldwork, participant observation and interviews to understand practices and meanings.
Experiment: An experiment is a research design in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable, randomly assigns participants to conditions and measures the effect on a dependent variable. It is the strongest design for causal inference.
Experimental group (treatment group): The experimental or treatment group is the group in an experiment that receives the intervention whose effect is being tested.
Expert interview: An expert interview is a semi-structured interview with a person who has specialized knowledge of a field, process or organization, conducted to access that knowledge rather than personal experience. Read more →
Exploratory research: Exploratory research investigates a topic that is little understood in order to generate ideas, concepts and hypotheses rather than to test them. It often uses qualitative methods.
Extension (deadline): An extension is official permission to submit an assignment after the original deadline without penalty, typically granted for illness or other documented circumstances.
Extenuating circumstances (mitigating circumstances): Extenuating or mitigating circumstances are serious, unforeseen events such as illness or bereavement that affect a student’s ability to complete assessments. UK universities let students submit a claim, usually with evidence, for extensions or deferrals.
External examiner: An external examiner is an academic from another university who assesses a thesis or moderates marking. In the UK, external examiners are part of the PhD viva and oversee standards for taught degrees.
External validity: External validity is the extent to which a study’s findings can be generalized to other people, settings and times. It depends on sampling and on how realistic the study conditions are. Read more →
F-statistic: The F-statistic is the ratio of variance between groups to variance within groups in ANOVA, or of explained to unexplained variance in regression. Large F values indicate significant differences or a significant model. Read more →
Fabrication: Fabrication is making up data, results or sources and reporting them as real. It is one of the three core forms of research misconduct, alongside falsification and plagiarism.
Face validity: Face validity is the extent to which a measure appears, on the surface, to assess what it is supposed to assess. It is the weakest form of validity evidence because it relies on subjective judgment.
Factor analysis: Factor analysis identifies underlying latent factors that explain correlations among many observed variables. Exploratory factor analysis discovers structure; confirmatory factor analysis tests a hypothesized structure. Read more →
Falsification: Falsification is manipulating research materials, equipment, processes, data or results so that the research record is misrepresented, for example by removing inconvenient data points without justification.
Fellowship: A fellowship is a merit-based award, usually for graduate students or researchers, that funds study or research, often covering tuition and a living stipend without teaching duties.
Feynman technique: The Feynman technique is a method of learning by explaining a concept in simple language as if teaching a beginner, identifying gaps where the explanation fails and going back to the source to fill them. Read more →
Field notes: Field notes are the written records researchers make during or right after observations, describing what happened, the setting and their own reflections. They are a primary data source in ethnography. Read more →
Final exam: A final exam is a test at the end of a term, often cumulative, covering the whole course. Finals week is the period at the end of a US semester reserved for final exams.
Financial aid: Financial aid is money that helps students pay for higher education, including grants, scholarships, work-study and loans. In the US, eligibility for federal aid is determined via the FAFSA.
First-class honours (First): First-class honours is the highest UK undergraduate degree classification, typically awarded for an overall average of 70% or above.
Fisher’s exact test: Fisher’s exact test assesses the association between two categorical variables in a 2×2 table and is used instead of the chi-square test when expected cell counts are small. Read more →
Flashcards: Flashcards are cards with a question or cue on one side and the answer on the other, used for retrieval practice. They are especially effective when combined with spaced repetition. Read more →
Fleiss’ kappa: Fleiss’ kappa extends chance-corrected agreement to three or more raters assigning categorical ratings. It is interpreted similarly to Cohen’s kappa. Read more →
Focus group: A focus group is a moderated discussion with typically 6–10 participants on a specific topic. It reveals shared views, disagreements and how opinions form through interaction. Read more →
Focused coding: Focused coding is the second phase in Charmaz’s constructivist grounded theory, in which the most significant or frequent initial codes are used to sort and synthesize large amounts of data. Read more →
Footnote: A footnote is a numbered note at the bottom of a page that gives a citation or additional comment. Chicago notes-bibliography and OSCOLA (legal citation in the UK) rely on footnotes rather than in-text citations. Read more →
Forgetting curve: The forgetting curve, described by Hermann Ebbinghaus, shows that memory of new information declines rapidly at first and then more slowly. Repeated, spaced review flattens the curve. Read more →
Formative assessment: Formative assessment is low-stakes or ungraded assessment during learning, such as quizzes, drafts or practice problems, that provides feedback to improve learning rather than to certify it.
Framework analysis (framework method): Framework analysis is a structured qualitative method developed in UK applied policy research. It involves familiarization, building a thematic framework, indexing, charting data into a case-by-theme matrix and interpretation. Read more →
Framework matrix: A framework matrix is a table with cases (participants) as rows and themes as columns, filled with summarized data. It enables comparison within and across cases. Read more →
Frequency distribution: A frequency distribution shows how often each value or range of values of a variable occurs in a dataset, as a table or chart such as a histogram or bar chart. Read more →
FSRS (Free Spaced Repetition Scheduler): FSRS is an open-source spaced repetition algorithm that models how memory fades and schedules each review close to the point of forgetting. It is available in Anki and used in Professor Digital’s study lab. Read more →
Gatekeeper (research access): A gatekeeper is a person who controls access to a research site or group, such as a school principal or company manager. Gaining their approval is often the first step in fieldwork.
GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation): The GDPR is the EU data protection law, mirrored in the UK GDPR, that regulates the processing of personal data. Researchers need a lawful basis, must inform participants and must store data securely. Read more →
General education requirements (gen eds): General education requirements are courses across disciplines, such as writing, mathematics, sciences and humanities, that all US undergraduates must complete regardless of major.
GPA (grade point average): The GPA is the average of a student’s grade points weighted by credit hours, usually on a 4.0 scale in the US (A = 4.0, B = 3.0, C = 2.0, D = 1.0, F = 0). A term GPA covers one semester; the cumulative GPA covers all coursework. Read more →
Grade appeal (academic appeal): A grade appeal is a formal request to review a grade or academic decision. It usually requires showing a procedural error or unfair treatment; disagreement with academic judgment alone is rarely enough.
Grading on a curve: Grading on a curve is assigning grades based on students’ performance relative to each other rather than fixed thresholds, e.g. the top 20% receive an A. It contrasts with criterion-referenced grading.
Graduate assistantship: A graduate assistantship is a paid position for a graduate student, such as a teaching or research assistantship, often including a tuition waiver and stipend in exchange for about 20 hours of work per week.
Graduate student (postgraduate): A graduate student, called a postgraduate in the UK, is a student pursuing an advanced degree after a bachelor’s, such as a master’s or doctorate.
Grammarly: Grammarly is a writing assistant that checks spelling, grammar, punctuation and style and also offers generative AI features. Basic proofreading is often allowed at universities, while AI rewriting may need to be disclosed. Read more →
Grey literature: Grey literature is research and information produced outside traditional commercial or academic publishing, such as government reports, working papers, theses, conference abstracts and policy briefs. It is often included in systematic reviews to reduce publication bias.
Grounded theory: Grounded theory is a qualitative methodology, developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), for building theory inductively from data through simultaneous data collection and analysis, constant comparison and theoretical sampling. Read more →
Group project: A group project is an assignment completed collaboratively by several students. Fair grading often combines a group grade with peer evaluation of individual contributions.
Hanging indent: A hanging indent is a paragraph format in which the first line starts at the margin and all following lines are indented, typically by 0.5 inch. APA, MLA and Chicago require it for reference list entries.
Harvard referencing: Harvard referencing is a family of author–date citation styles, widespread at UK and Australian universities, with in-text citations such as (Brown, 2019, p. 12) and an alphabetical reference list. There is no single official version, so students follow their university’s guide. Read more →
Hawthorne effect: The Hawthorne effect is a change in participants’ behavior caused by their awareness of being observed or studied rather than by the intervention itself.
Hedging: Hedging is the use of cautious language such as “suggests,” “may” or “appears to” to express claims with the degree of certainty the evidence supports. It is a hallmark of careful academic writing.
Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics is the theory and practice of interpretation, originally of texts. It emphasizes the hermeneutic circle: understanding the parts through the whole and the whole through the parts.
Histogram: A histogram is a bar chart of a continuous variable’s distribution, in which bars represent frequencies within adjacent intervals (bins). It shows shape, center, spread and skewness. Read more →
Homogeneity of variance: Homogeneity of variance is the assumption that the variances of the dependent variable are roughly equal across groups. It is required by the Student t-test and classic ANOVA. Read more →
Homoscedasticity: Homoscedasticity is the regression assumption that residuals have constant variance across all levels of the predicted values. Its violation, heteroscedasticity, distorts standard errors. Read more →
Honor code: An honor code is a set of principles, often signed by students, committing them to academic honesty and forbidding cheating, plagiarism and lying. At some US colleges students also pledge to report violations, and exams may be unproctored.
Honors thesis: An honors thesis is an optional or required research project completed by US undergraduates in an honors program, usually in the senior year under a faculty advisor. It can qualify the student for graduation with honors.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables, derived from theory or prior research, e.g. “Students who use retrieval practice score higher on the final exam than those who reread.” Read more →
Hypothesis test (significance test): A hypothesis test is a statistical procedure that calculates a test statistic and p-value to decide whether to reject the null hypothesis at a chosen significance level. Read more →
Ibid.: Ibid. (Latin ibidem, “in the same place”) is used in footnote citation to refer to the source cited in the immediately preceding note. The 17th edition of the Chicago Manual discourages it in favor of shortened citations.
Illusion of competence (fluency illusion): The illusion of competence is the mistaken feeling of mastering material because it seems familiar, e.g. after rereading or highlighting. Self-testing reveals what one actually knows. Read more →
Impact factor: The impact factor is a metric indicating how often articles in a journal were cited on average over the previous two years. It is a rough indicator of a journal’s visibility but says nothing about the quality of a single article.
IMRaD: IMRaD is the standard structure of empirical research articles: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. Many journals and theses in the sciences and social sciences follow it, often with an abstract and a conclusion added.
In vivo code: An in vivo code uses a participant’s own words as the code label, e.g. “drowning in deadlines.” It keeps the analysis close to participants’ language. Read more →
In-text citation: An in-text citation is the brief reference within the body of a paper that identifies a source, such as (Smith, 2021, p. 4) in APA or (Smith 4) in MLA. Each in-text citation must correspond to an entry in the reference list. Read more →
Incomplete (I grade): An incomplete is a temporary grade given when a student cannot finish course requirements for a valid reason such as illness. The work must be completed by a deadline or the grade usually converts to an F.
Independent samples t-test: The independent samples t-test compares the means of two unrelated groups, such as students taught online versus in person. It assumes approximately normal data and, in the Student version, equal variances. Read more →
Independent variable: An independent variable is the variable a researcher manipulates or uses to explain changes in another variable, i.e. the presumed cause or predictor, such as the teaching method in an experiment.
Indicator: An indicator is an observable, measurable variable used to represent an abstract construct, such as the number of library visits as one indicator of study engagement. Read more →
Inductive coding: Inductive coding develops codes directly from the data without a predetermined framework. It is open to new insights and is typical of grounded theory and exploratory studies. Read more →
Inductive reasoning: Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to general patterns, concepts or theories. It is typical of exploratory and qualitative research.
Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics use sample data to draw conclusions about a population, through hypothesis tests, confidence intervals and estimation, while quantifying uncertainty. Read more →
Informed consent: Informed consent is a participant’s voluntary agreement to take part in research after being told the purpose, procedures, risks, benefits and their right to withdraw. It is usually documented with a signed consent form. Read more →
Inter-rater reliability (intercoder reliability): Inter-rater reliability is the degree of agreement between two or more coders or raters who independently categorize the same data. It is quantified with measures such as Cohen’s kappa or Krippendorff’s alpha. Read more →
Interaction effect: An interaction effect occurs when the effect of one independent variable on the outcome depends on the level of another variable, e.g. a teaching method helping beginners but not advanced students. Read more →
Interleaving: Interleaving is mixing different topics or problem types within a study session instead of practicing one type at a time (blocking). It improves the ability to distinguish problems and choose the right strategy. Read more →
Internal consistency: Internal consistency is the degree to which items of a scale measure the same construct, i.e. how strongly they correlate with each other. It is most often reported as Cronbach’s alpha or McDonald’s omega. Read more →
Internal validity: Internal validity is the degree to which a study can attribute changes in the dependent variable to the independent variable rather than to confounding factors. Random assignment and control groups strengthen it. Read more →
Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA): IPA is a qualitative approach, developed by Jonathan Smith, that explores how individuals make sense of significant life experiences. It combines phenomenology and hermeneutics and usually uses small, homogeneous samples. Read more →
Interpretivism: Interpretivism is a research philosophy holding that social reality is constructed through human meaning-making, so researchers must understand participants’ perspectives. It underpins most qualitative research.
Interquartile range (IQR): The interquartile range is Q3 minus Q1, the spread of the middle 50% of the data. It is robust to outliers and pairs naturally with the median. Read more →
Interval scale: An interval scale has ordered values with equal distances between them but no true zero point, such as temperature in Celsius. Means and standard deviations are meaningful, ratios are not. Read more →
Interview (research): A research interview is a conversation designed to collect data on participants’ experiences, opinions or knowledge. Interviews range from structured (fixed questions) to semi-structured and unstructured. Read more →
Interview guide (interview protocol): An interview guide is the list of main questions, follow-ups and probes used in semi-structured interviews, together with an introduction and closing. It ensures key topics are covered while allowing flexibility. Read more →
Intra-rater reliability: Intra-rater reliability is the consistency of the same coder when coding the same material at two different times. Read more →
Introduction (academic paper): The introduction is the opening section of an academic paper that establishes the topic, context and relevance, states the research question or thesis and previews the structure of the text.
IRB (Institutional Review Board): An IRB is a US committee that reviews research involving human participants to protect their rights and welfare, as required by federal regulations. Student projects with human subjects usually need IRB approval or exemption before data collection. Read more →
ISBN: The ISBN (International Standard Book Number) is a unique 13-digit identifier for a specific edition of a book. It is useful for finding a book but is not included in APA, MLA or Chicago reference entries.
ISSN: The ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) is an eight-digit code that identifies a periodical such as a journal or magazine as a whole, not individual articles.
Item (questionnaire): An item is a single question or statement in a questionnaire or test to which respondents give an answer. Several items measuring the same construct are combined into a scale. Read more →
Item-total correlation (item discrimination): The corrected item-total correlation is the correlation between an item and the sum of the remaining items of a scale. Items below about .30 contribute little and may be revised or removed. Read more →
iThenticate: iThenticate is a text-matching service from the same company as Turnitin, aimed at researchers, graduate schools and publishers. It checks theses, dissertations and journal manuscripts for overlap with published literature. Read more →
JabRef: JabRef is a free, open-source reference manager that works natively with BibTeX and BibLaTeX files. It is popular with students who write their thesis in LaTeX or Overleaf. Read more →
jamovi: jamovi is a free, open-source statistics program with a spreadsheet view and menus, built on R. It produces APA-style tables, can show the underlying R code and is often used as a free alternative to SPSS in teaching. Read more →
JASP: JASP is a free, open-source statistics program with point-and-click menus, developed at the University of Amsterdam and based on R. It offers classical and Bayesian tests side by side and produces APA-style tables. Read more →
Journal article: A journal article is a paper published in an academic periodical, usually after peer review. A reference typically includes authors, year, title, journal name, volume, issue, page range and DOI.
Kendall’s tau: Kendall’s tau is a rank correlation coefficient based on concordant and discordant pairs of observations. It is preferred over Spearman’s rho for small samples with many tied ranks. Read more →
Krippendorff’s alpha: Krippendorff’s alpha is a flexible coefficient of inter-coder agreement that works for any number of coders, any level of measurement and missing data. Values of .80 or above are generally considered reliable. Read more →
Kruskal-Wallis test: The Kruskal-Wallis test is a non-parametric test comparing three or more independent groups on ranked data. It is the non-parametric alternative to one-way ANOVA. Read more →
Kurtosis: Kurtosis describes how heavy the tails of a distribution are compared with a normal distribution. Positive excess kurtosis means heavier tails and more extreme values. Read more →
Large language model (LLM): A large language model is an AI system trained on large amounts of text to predict and generate language. Chatbots such as ChatGPT, Claude and Gemini are based on LLMs; they can explain and draft text but may produce false statements and invented references. Read more →
Late penalty: A late penalty is a deduction from the mark for an assignment submitted after the deadline without an approved extension, e.g. 5 percentage points per day. Policies vary by institution.
LaTeX: LaTeX is a free typesetting system in which you write plain text with commands and compile it into a PDF. It is standard for theses in mathematics, physics, computer science and engineering because of its handling of formulas, numbering and references. Read more →
Latin honors: Latin honors are distinctions awarded at graduation in the US based on cumulative GPA: cum laude (with honor), magna cum laude (with great honor) and summa cum laude (with highest honor). GPA cut-offs vary by institution.
Leading question: A leading question is worded in a way that pushes respondents toward a particular answer, e.g. “Don’t you agree that tuition is too high?” It introduces bias and should be avoided. Read more →
Learning outcomes: Learning outcomes are statements of what students should know or be able to do after completing a course or program, e.g. “apply a t-test to compare two group means.” Assessments are designed to measure them.
Learning styles (myth): Learning styles theory claims that people learn better when teaching matches their preferred modality, such as visual or auditory. Research has not found evidence for this matching hypothesis. Read more →
Lecture: A lecture is a class format in which an instructor presents material to a large group of students, with limited interaction. It is often paired with smaller discussion sections, seminars or tutorials.
Leitner system: The Leitner system is a flashcard method using several boxes: correctly answered cards move to a box reviewed less often, while missed cards return to the first box for frequent review. Read more →
Letter grade: A letter grade is a grade expressed as A, B, C, D or F, often with plus and minus modifiers, used in US higher education. Each letter maps to grade points for GPA calculation; F is failing. Read more →
Levels of measurement (scales of measurement): Levels of measurement classify variables as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio according to the information their values carry. The level determines which statistics and tests are appropriate. Read more →
Levene’s test: Levene’s test checks whether two or more groups have equal variances (homogeneity of variance), an assumption of the Student t-test and ANOVA. A significant result indicates unequal variances. Read more →
Liberal arts: Liberal arts education is a broad undergraduate approach covering humanities, sciences and social sciences that emphasizes critical thinking and communication over narrow vocational training. It is typical of US liberal arts colleges.
Likert scale: A Likert scale measures attitudes with several statements that respondents rate on an ordered agreement scale, typically five or seven points from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Item scores are summed or averaged. Read more →
Limitations: Limitations are the weaknesses in a study’s design, sample, measurement or analysis that restrict how far its findings can be generalized or trusted. Stating them openly is a sign of rigor, not failure.
Linear regression: Linear regression models the relationship between a continuous dependent variable and one or more predictors with a straight line, Y = b0 + b1X + e, to explain or predict outcomes. Read more →
Literature review: A literature review is a structured synthesis of the published research on a topic. It summarizes and compares key findings, theories and debates, evaluates their quality and identifies the gap the current study addresses; it can be a thesis chapter or a stand-alone paper. Read more →
Logistic regression: Logistic regression models the probability of a binary outcome, such as pass/fail, from one or more predictors. Results are often expressed as odds ratios. Read more →
Longitudinal study: A longitudinal study collects data from the same or comparable units at several points in time, allowing researchers to track change and development.
Major: A major is a student’s primary field of study in a US bachelor’s degree, making up a substantial share of the required credits. Students usually declare a major by the end of their sophomore year.
Mann-Whitney U test: The Mann-Whitney U test is a non-parametric test comparing two independent groups on an ordinal or non-normal continuous variable by analyzing ranks. It is the non-parametric alternative to the independent samples t-test. Read more →
MANOVA: MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) tests group differences on several related dependent variables at once, reducing the Type I error inflation of running separate ANOVAs. Read more →
Master’s degree: A master’s degree is a graduate degree following a bachelor’s, typically one year in the UK and two years in the US. It may be taught (coursework-based) or research-based, often ending with a thesis or capstone.
MAXQDA: MAXQDA is a commercial program for qualitative and mixed-methods data analysis on Windows and macOS. It offers a code system, memos, retrieved segments, code matrices and tools that combine coded text with survey variables. Read more →
Mean (arithmetic mean): The mean is the sum of all values divided by the number of values. It uses all data but is sensitive to outliers; e.g. grades of 2, 3 and 7 have a mean of 4. Read more →
Measures of central tendency: Measures of central tendency describe the typical or central value of a distribution. The main ones are the mean, the median and the mode. Read more →
Measures of variability (dispersion): Measures of variability describe how spread out values are, such as the range, interquartile range, variance and standard deviation. Read more →
Median: The median is the middle value of an ordered dataset, dividing it into two halves. It is robust to outliers and suitable for ordinal and skewed data, such as income. Read more →
Mediator variable: A mediator is a variable that explains how or why an independent variable affects a dependent variable by lying on the causal path between them, e.g. motivation mediating the effect of feedback on performance.
Member checking (respondent validation): Member checking is returning interpretations or findings to participants so they can confirm, correct or add to them. It is a common strategy to increase credibility in qualitative research. Read more →
Memo (analytic memo): A memo is a note written during qualitative analysis in which the researcher records ideas, interpretations, questions and emerging connections between codes. Memo writing is central to grounded theory. Read more →
Memory consolidation: Memory consolidation is the process by which new memories are stabilized and integrated into long-term memory, largely during sleep. All-nighters before exams therefore undermine retention. Read more →
Mendeley: Mendeley is a reference manager owned by the publisher Elsevier. With a free account it stores references and PDFs, offers a PDF reader with annotations and inserts citations into Word via the Mendeley Cite add-in. Read more →
Meta-analysis: A meta-analysis statistically combines the effect sizes of multiple independent studies on the same question to estimate an overall effect. It is often part of a systematic review and can reveal patterns invisible in single studies. Read more →
Metacognition: Metacognition is thinking about one’s own thinking: planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning. Students with strong metacognition can judge what they know and adjust their study strategies. Read more →
Method of loci (memory palace): The method of loci is a mnemonic technique in which items to be remembered are mentally placed along a familiar route or location and later retrieved by walking through it in imagination.
Methods section (methodology chapter): The methods section describes how a study was carried out — design, participants or sample, materials, procedure and analysis — in enough detail that others could evaluate or replicate it. In theses it is often called the methodology chapter.
Midterm exam: A midterm exam is a test given around the middle of a term that covers the first half of a course. In the US it typically counts for a substantial part of the final grade.
Mind map: A mind map is a diagram with a central topic in the middle and related ideas branching out radially. It is useful for brainstorming and getting an overview of a subject. Read more →
Minor: A minor is a secondary field of study in a US bachelor’s degree that requires fewer credits than a major, typically 15–24 credit hours.
Missing data: Missing data are values that were not recorded for some cases. Depending on whether they are missing completely at random, at random or not at random, they are handled by deletion or imputation.
Mixed methods research: Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis in one study and deliberately integrates the results. Common designs are convergent, explanatory sequential and exploratory sequential. Read more →
MLA style: MLA style is the citation style of the Modern Language Association, widely used in literature, languages and the humanities. It uses author–page in-text citations such as (Morrison 45) and a Works Cited list; the current handbook is the 9th edition. Read more →
Mnemonic: A mnemonic is a memory aid such as an acronym, rhyme or image that makes information easier to recall, e.g. “PEMDAS” for the order of mathematical operations.
Mode: The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a dataset. It is the only measure of central tendency for nominal data; a distribution can have more than one mode. Read more →
Moderator variable: A moderator is a variable that changes the strength or direction of the relationship between two other variables, e.g. if the effect of study time on grades differs by gender. It is tested via an interaction term.
Monograph: A monograph is a scholarly book on a single specialized topic, usually written by one author or a small team. It is a key publication format in the humanities.
Multicollinearity: Multicollinearity occurs when predictors in a regression are highly correlated with each other, making individual coefficients unstable. It is diagnosed with the variance inflation factor (VIF). Read more →
Multiple comparisons problem: The multiple comparisons problem is the inflation of the overall Type I error rate when many tests are run on the same data: with 20 tests at α = .05, one false positive is expected by chance. Read more →
Multiple regression: Multiple regression predicts a continuous outcome from two or more predictors simultaneously, estimating each predictor’s effect while holding the others constant. Read more →
Multiple-choice question (MCQ): A multiple-choice question presents a question (the stem) with several answer options, of which one or more are correct. Well-designed MCQs can assess application, not just recall.
Narrative analysis: Narrative analysis examines the stories people tell, focusing on their content, structure and function, to understand how individuals make sense of events and identities.
Narrative interview: A narrative interview invites participants to tell their story in their own way, starting with an open prompt, with the interviewer intervening as little as possible. It is used in biographical research.
Narrative review: A narrative review summarizes and discusses the literature on a topic without a fully systematic search protocol. It provides a broad overview but is more prone to selection bias than a systematic review.
Nominal scale: A nominal scale classifies data into categories without any order, such as major, country of birth or blood type. Only frequencies and the mode are meaningful. Read more →
Non-parametric test: A non-parametric test makes fewer assumptions about the data distribution and often uses ranks, e.g. Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon or Kruskal-Wallis. It suits ordinal data, small samples and skewed distributions. Read more →
Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling selects participants by non-random criteria such as accessibility or researcher judgment, e.g. convenience, purposive, quota or snowball sampling. It is common in qualitative research and student projects. Read more →
Nonresponse bias: Nonresponse bias occurs when people who do not take part in a survey differ systematically from those who do, so results misrepresent the population.
Normal distribution: The normal distribution is a symmetric, bell-shaped probability distribution defined by its mean and standard deviation. About 68%, 95% and 99.7% of values lie within 1, 2 and 3 SD of the mean. Read more →
Normality test: A normality test checks whether data plausibly come from a normal distribution, as assumed by parametric tests. Common tests are Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov, ideally combined with Q-Q plots. Read more →
Note-taking: Note-taking is recording key information from lectures or readings in a structured way to aid understanding and later review. Summarizing in one’s own words is more effective than transcribing verbatim. Read more →
Null hypothesis (H0): The null hypothesis states that there is no effect, difference or relationship in the population. Significance tests assess how compatible the data are with it. Read more →
NVivo: NVivo is a commercial qualitative data analysis program for Windows and macOS. Students use it to code interview transcripts, write memos, link cases to attributes and compare themes with queries; it is widely licensed by universities in the UK and Australia. Read more →
Objectivity (research): Objectivity is the degree to which results are independent of the person who collects, analyzes or interprets the data. Standardized procedures and clear scoring rules increase it. Read more →
Observation (research method): Observation is a data collection method in which researchers systematically watch and record behavior or events. It can be structured or unstructured, overt or covert, participant or non-participant. Read more →
Odds ratio (OR): An odds ratio compares the odds of an outcome in two groups. An OR of 2 means the odds are twice as high; an OR of 1 means no difference. It is the standard effect measure in logistic regression. Read more →
Office hours: Office hours are regular times when instructors or teaching assistants are available to meet students individually, in person or online, to discuss course material, assignments or academic plans.
One-sample t-test: The one-sample t-test compares the mean of a single sample with a known or hypothesized value, such as testing whether a class average differs from a national norm of 70. Read more →
One-tailed test: A one-tailed test checks for an effect in one specified direction only. It has more power for that direction but cannot detect an effect in the opposite direction and must be justified in advance. Read more →
One-way ANOVA: A one-way ANOVA compares the means of three or more groups defined by a single factor, such as exam scores across three teaching methods. Read more →
Ontology: Ontology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of reality. In research, ontological assumptions ask whether social reality exists independently of people (realism) or is socially constructed (constructionism).
Open access: Open access means scholarly publications are freely available online to anyone. In gold open access the publisher makes the final version free; in green open access authors deposit a version in a repository.
Open coding: Open coding is the first phase of grounded theory analysis, in which data are broken down line by line or segment by segment and labeled with preliminary codes. Read more →
Open-book exam: An open-book exam allows students to consult notes, textbooks or other permitted materials. It tests understanding and application rather than memorization.
Open-ended question: An open-ended question lets respondents answer freely in their own words, e.g. “What would improve your study experience?” Answers provide rich detail but require qualitative coding. Read more →
Operationalization: Operationalization is the process of turning an abstract concept into measurable indicators, e.g. defining “academic engagement” as hours of self-study per week plus class attendance rate. Read more →
Oral exam: An oral exam is an assessment in which students answer questions spoken by one or more examiners, demonstrating knowledge and reasoning in conversation. It is used in language courses, medicine and degree defenses. Read more →
Ordinal scale: An ordinal scale ranks values in a meaningful order, but the distances between ranks are not necessarily equal, e.g. class rank or letter grades. The median and percentiles are appropriate. Read more →
Outlier: An outlier is a value that lies far from most other observations, often defined as more than 1.5 × IQR beyond the quartiles or more than 3 SD from the mean. Outliers should be checked, not automatically deleted. Read more →
Outline: An outline is a hierarchical plan of a paper’s structure, listing sections and main points in order before drafting. It helps check the logic of an argument and is often required as an early milestone for theses.
Outline method (note-taking): The outline method organizes notes hierarchically with main topics, indented subtopics and supporting details. It suits well-structured lectures and makes review easy. Read more →
Overleaf: Overleaf is a browser-based LaTeX editor with live preview, real-time collaboration, comments and version history. It hosts many official university thesis templates; some universities provide institutional access. Read more →
P-hacking: P-hacking is manipulating data collection or analysis, such as adding participants or trying many tests until p < .05, to obtain significant results. It inflates false positives and is considered questionable research practice.
P-value: The p-value is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as those observed if the null hypothesis were true. It is not the probability that the null hypothesis is true; p < .05 is the conventional threshold for significance. Read more →
Paired samples t-test (dependent t-test): The paired samples t-test compares two means from the same participants or matched pairs, such as scores before and after a course, by testing whether the mean difference is zero. Read more →
Panel study: A panel study is a longitudinal design that repeatedly surveys the same individuals over time, making it possible to observe individual-level change. Attrition (panel mortality) is a key problem.
Parallel-forms reliability: Parallel-forms reliability is the correlation between scores on two equivalent versions of a test taken by the same people. It avoids memory effects of repeating the same test.
Parametric test: A parametric test assumes the data follow a particular distribution, usually normal, with interval or ratio data, e.g. t-tests and ANOVA. It is more powerful when its assumptions hold. Read more →
Paraphrase: A paraphrase restates a specific passage from a source in your own words and sentence structure while keeping the original meaning. It still requires a citation; changing only a few words is considered patchwriting or plagiarism. Read more →
Participant information sheet: A participant information sheet is a plain-language document that explains a study’s aims, procedures, risks, data handling and right to withdraw, given to potential participants before they consent. Read more →
Participant observation: Participant observation is a method in which the researcher takes part in the everyday life of the group studied while observing and taking field notes. It is central to ethnography. Read more →
Pass/fail (credit/no credit): Pass/fail is a grading option in which a course is graded only as pass or fail rather than with a letter grade. Passed courses earn credit but usually do not affect the GPA.
Patchwriting: Patchwriting is copying a source text and only swapping words or rearranging phrases instead of genuinely paraphrasing. Even with a citation, it is usually treated as a form of plagiarism. Read more →
Pearson correlation coefficient (r): Pearson’s r measures the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two continuous variables, from −1 to +1. Benchmarks of .10, .30 and .50 are often read as small, medium and large. Read more →
Peer assessment: Peer assessment is students evaluating each other’s work or contributions using set criteria. It builds evaluative judgment and is often used in group projects.
Peer debriefing: Peer debriefing is discussing the analysis with a knowledgeable colleague who is not involved in the study and who challenges interpretations, enhancing the credibility of qualitative findings.
Peer review: Peer review is the evaluation of a manuscript by independent experts in the same field before publication. In double-blind review neither authors nor reviewers know each other’s identity; it is a key quality marker of scholarly journals.
Peer-reviewed journal (refereed journal): A peer-reviewed or refereed journal publishes only articles that have passed review by independent experts. Instructors often require students to use such sources because they meet scholarly quality standards.
Percent agreement: Percent agreement is the simple proportion of coding decisions on which two coders agree. It is easy to compute but overstates reliability because it ignores agreement by chance. Read more →
Percentile: A percentile is the value below which a given percentage of observations fall; e.g. scoring at the 90th percentile means scoring higher than 90% of test-takers. Read more →
Perplexity: Perplexity is an AI-based answer engine that responds to questions with a summary and links to the web sources it used. The linked sources must still be opened and checked before they are used in academic work. Read more →
Personal data: Personal data is any information relating to an identified or identifiable living person, such as names, email addresses, voice recordings or combinations of details that allow identification.
Personal tutor: A personal tutor is a UK academic staff member assigned to a student for academic and pastoral support throughout their degree, comparable to an academic advisor in the US.
PhD (Doctor of Philosophy): A PhD is the highest research degree, awarded for an original contribution to knowledge presented in a dissertation and defended orally. US programs usually include coursework and take five or more years; UK programs often three to four.
Phenomenology: Phenomenology is a philosophical and research approach that studies lived experience as it appears to the person, aiming to describe the essence or meaning of a phenomenon. Read more →
Pilot study: A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of a study before the main data collection, used to test instruments, procedures, timing and feasibility so problems can be fixed in advance. Read more →
Placebo effect: The placebo effect is an improvement in outcomes caused by participants’ expectations rather than by the active ingredient of a treatment. Placebo control groups separate it from the real effect.
Plagiarism: Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s words, ideas, data or work as your own without proper acknowledgment. It includes copying without citation, patchwriting and submitting purchased or AI-generated text as one’s own, and is a serious academic integrity violation. Read more →
Plagiarism policy: A plagiarism policy is a university’s official rules defining plagiarism, how suspected cases are investigated and which penalties apply. Students are expected to know it, and ignorance is not accepted as an excuse. Read more →
Point estimate: A point estimate is a single value calculated from sample data to estimate a population parameter, such as the sample mean as an estimate of the population mean. Read more →
Pomodoro technique: The Pomodoro technique is a time management method that alternates 25 minutes of focused work with 5-minute breaks, taking a longer break after four rounds. It helps start tasks and maintain concentration. Read more →
Population: A population is the entire group of people, cases or objects about which a study wants to draw conclusions, such as all full-time undergraduates in a country. Read more →
Positivism: Positivism is a research philosophy holding that reality is objective and can be known through observation and measurement. It underlies much quantitative research with its focus on hypothesis testing and generalization.
Post hoc test: A post hoc test compares pairs of groups after a significant ANOVA to find out which means differ, while controlling the error rate, e.g. Tukey’s HSD or Bonferroni-adjusted comparisons. Read more →
Poster presentation: A poster presentation summarizes a research project on a large poster displayed at a conference or student research day, with the author present to discuss it with visitors.
Power analysis: A power analysis calculates the sample size needed to detect an expected effect with a given significance level (usually .05) and statistical power (usually .80). It should be done before data collection. Read more →
Practical significance: Practical significance is whether an effect is large enough to matter in the real world. A statistically significant result can be practically trivial, which is why effect sizes are reported. Read more →
Pragmatism (research philosophy): Pragmatism is a research philosophy that judges methods by how well they answer the research question rather than by allegiance to one paradigm. It is the most common justification for mixed methods research.
Pre-registration: Pre-registration is publicly recording a study’s hypotheses, design and analysis plan before data collection. It guards against p-hacking and selective reporting.
Preprint: A preprint is a version of a scholarly paper shared publicly before peer review, usually on a preprint server. Preprints spread findings quickly but must be cited with care because they have not been vetted.
Prerequisite: A prerequisite is a course or requirement that must be completed before a student may enroll in a more advanced course, e.g. Statistics I before Statistics II.
Presentation (academic): An academic presentation is an oral talk, usually supported by slides, in which a student presents research or course material to an audience and answers questions. It is often graded on content, structure and delivery.
Pretest (questionnaire): A pretest is a trial of a questionnaire with a few people from the target group to check comprehension, wording, order and completion time before the survey is launched. Cognitive interviews are a common pretest method. Read more →
Primary source: A primary source is original, first-hand material: data, experiments, interviews, historical documents, legal texts or literary works. In the sciences, an original research article reporting new findings is also considered primary literature.
Principal component analysis (PCA): Principal component analysis reduces many correlated variables to a smaller number of uncorrelated components that capture as much variance as possible. It is a data reduction technique, distinct from factor analysis.
PRISMA: PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) is a reporting guideline with a checklist and flow diagram showing how many records were identified, screened, excluded and included in a review. Read more →
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is any sampling method in which every member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected, such as simple random, stratified or cluster sampling. It allows statistical generalization. Read more →
Probe (interviewing): A probe is a follow-up prompt in an interview that encourages a participant to elaborate or clarify, such as “Can you give me an example?” or “What did you mean by that?” Read more →
Procrastination: Procrastination is voluntarily delaying an intended task despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. It is usually linked to emotion regulation, such as avoiding anxiety or boredom, rather than to laziness. Read more →
Prospectus: A prospectus is the US term, common in doctoral programs, for a dissertation proposal that the student presents to the committee for approval before starting the main research. Requirements and length vary by department.
Pseudonymization: Pseudonymization replaces identifying details with codes or pseudonyms (e.g. “P07”), with a separate, secured key allowing re-identification. Pseudonymized data are still personal data under the GDPR. Read more →
PSPP: PSPP is a free GNU program modelled on SPSS. It reads and writes .sav files and understands much of the SPSS syntax for basic procedures such as descriptives, t-tests, ANOVA and regression. Read more →
Publication bias: Publication bias is the tendency for studies with significant or positive results to be published more often than studies with null results, which distorts the literature and meta-analyses.
Purposive sampling: Purposive (judgmental) sampling deliberately selects participants who can provide rich information on the research question, e.g. experienced teachers. It is the standard approach in qualitative research. Read more →
Q-Q plot: A Q-Q (quantile-quantile) plot compares the quantiles of a sample with those of a theoretical distribution. If data are normal, the points lie approximately on a straight line. Read more →
QualCoder: QualCoder is a free, open-source qualitative data analysis program for Windows, macOS and Linux. It supports coding of text, images, audio and video, case attributes, memos and reports. Read more →
Qualifying exam (comprehensive exam): A qualifying or comprehensive exam is a major written and/or oral exam taken by US doctoral students after coursework to show mastery of their field. Passing it advances the student to candidacy.
Qualitative content analysis: Qualitative content analysis is a systematic, rule-guided method for describing the meaning of textual data by assigning segments to categories of a coding frame. Well-known approaches are by Mayring, Kuckartz and Schreier. Read more →
Qualitative data analysis: Qualitative data analysis is the systematic process of organizing, coding and interpreting non-numerical data such as transcripts or field notes to identify patterns, themes and meanings. Read more →
Qualitative research: Qualitative research collects non-numerical data such as interviews, observations or documents to understand meanings, experiences and processes in depth. It typically uses small, purposefully selected samples and interpretive analysis. Read more →
Quality points (grade points): Quality points are the grade point value of a letter grade multiplied by the course’s credit hours, e.g. an A (4.0) in a 3-credit course yields 12 quality points. GPA equals total quality points divided by total attempted credits. Read more →
Quantitative research: Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it statistically to measure variables, test hypotheses and generalize from a sample to a population. Typical methods are surveys and experiments. Read more →
Quarter system: The quarter system divides the US academic year into four terms of about ten weeks each (fall, winter, spring and an optional summer). Students take fewer courses per term but more terms per year.
Quartile: Quartiles divide an ordered dataset into four equal parts. The first quartile (Q1) is the 25th percentile, the second the median and the third (Q3) the 75th percentile. Read more →
Quasi-experiment: A quasi-experiment compares groups that receive different treatments but without random assignment, e.g. two existing classes. It is often more practical but more vulnerable to confounding.
Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a structured set of written questions used to collect standardized data from respondents, on paper or online. Good questionnaires use clear wording, logical order and validated scales. Read more →
Quizlet: Quizlet is a flashcard platform for web and mobile with study modes, games and millions of shared sets. It has a free tier and a paid plan with advanced features. Read more →
Quota sampling: Quota sampling selects participants non-randomly until predefined quotas for characteristics such as age or gender are filled, so the sample mirrors the population on those variables. Read more →
R (statistical software): R is a free, open-source programming language for statistics and graphics with thousands of add-on packages. Students write scripts, which makes analyses fully reproducible, for example t.test() for a t-test or lm() for regression. Read more →
Random assignment (randomization): Random assignment allocates participants to experimental conditions by chance, so that known and unknown characteristics are evenly distributed on average. It differs from random sampling, which concerns who enters the study.
Randomized controlled trial (RCT): A randomized controlled trial is an experiment in which participants are randomly assigned to an intervention or control group. It is considered the gold standard for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions.
Range: The range is the difference between the largest and smallest value in a dataset. It is simple but strongly affected by outliers. Read more →
Ratio scale: A ratio scale has equal intervals and a true zero point, so ratios are meaningful, e.g. income, reaction time or number of credits: 30 credits are twice as many as 15. Read more →
Reading week: A reading week is a break in the middle of a UK or Canadian term without regular classes, intended for independent study and catching up on coursework.
Reference list: A reference list is the alphabetical list at the end of a paper giving full details of every source cited in the text. APA and Harvard use the heading “References”; MLA uses “Works Cited.” Read more →
REFI-QDA: REFI-QDA is an open exchange standard for qualitative data analysis projects and codebooks. It allows documents, codes and coded segments to be transferred between programs such as NVivo, ATLAS.ti and MAXQDA, though not always without loss. Read more →
Reflexive thematic analysis: Reflexive thematic analysis is Braun and Clarke’s version of thematic analysis, which treats themes as actively constructed by the researcher and values subjectivity rather than seeking coder agreement. Read more →
Reflexivity: Reflexivity is the researcher’s ongoing critical reflection on how their background, assumptions and position influence data collection and interpretation. It is often documented in a reflexive journal. Read more →
RefWorks: RefWorks is a web-based reference manager available through institutional subscriptions. Students log in with their university account and cite in Word or Google Docs via an add-in. Read more →
Registrar: The registrar’s office maintains official academic records, handles course registration, issues transcripts and certifies degrees at a college or university.
Regression coefficient: A regression coefficient (b) indicates how much the dependent variable changes on average when a predictor increases by one unit, holding other predictors constant. Standardized coefficients (β) allow comparison across predictors. Read more →
Reliability: Reliability is the consistency of a measurement: a reliable instrument gives similar results under consistent conditions. Types include test-retest, inter-rater, parallel-forms and internal consistency reliability. Read more →
RemNote: RemNote is a note-taking app with built-in flashcards: lines in your notes can be turned into question-answer cards that enter a spaced repetition queue. Read more →
Repeated measures ANOVA: A repeated measures ANOVA compares three or more means measured on the same participants, such as scores at three time points. It assumes sphericity, which is tested with Mauchly’s test. Read more →
Replication: Replication is repeating a study, with the same or new data, to check whether its findings hold. The replication crisis refers to the failure of many published findings to replicate, especially in psychology.
Representativeness: Representativeness is the degree to which a sample reflects the relevant characteristics of the population. It depends mainly on the sampling method, not merely on sample size. Read more →
Research design: A research design is the overall plan of a study that links the research question to data collection and analysis: what is studied, with whom, when, how often and with which methods, e.g. experimental, cross-sectional or case study.
Research ethics: Research ethics are the principles governing responsible research with people, animals and data: respect for persons, beneficence and justice, put into practice through informed consent, confidentiality and minimizing harm. Read more →
Research ethics committee (REC): A research ethics committee is the UK, European and Australian equivalent of an IRB: a body that reviews research proposals involving human participants for ethical acceptability. Student dissertations often require departmental ethics approval. Read more →
Research gap: A research gap is a question or aspect of a topic that existing studies have not yet addressed, or have addressed only inadequately. Identifying it in the literature review justifies why a new study is needed. Read more →
Research misconduct: Research misconduct is fabrication, falsification or plagiarism in proposing, performing, reviewing or reporting research (US federal definition). It can lead to retraction of publications, loss of funding and dismissal.
Research paper: A research paper is an academic text that presents an original argument or findings based on systematic investigation of sources or data. In coursework it often means an extended essay built on library research; in journals it means a full empirical or theoretical article.
Research paradigm: A research paradigm is a set of philosophical assumptions about reality (ontology), knowledge (epistemology) and methods that guides research, such as positivism, interpretivism or pragmatism.
Research proposal: A research proposal is a document that outlines a planned study before it begins: topic, research question, rationale, literature, methods, ethics, timeline and sometimes budget. Students write one to get a thesis or dissertation topic approved or to apply for funding. Read more →
Research question: A research question is the precise, answerable question that a study or thesis sets out to investigate. It narrows the topic and determines the design, data and methods, e.g. “How does part-time work affect first-year students’ GPA?” Read more →
Residual: A residual is the difference between an observed value and the value predicted by a regression model. Residual plots are used to check model assumptions. Read more →
Resit (reassessment): A resit is the UK term for retaking a failed exam or assessment, usually in a summer reassessment period. The resit mark is often capped at the pass mark (40% for undergraduates).
Response rate: The response rate is the percentage of people invited to a survey who actually complete it. Low response rates raise the risk of nonresponse bias if responders differ from non-responders.
Results section: The results section reports the findings of a study objectively, using text, tables and figures, without interpreting them. Interpretation is reserved for the discussion section.
Retrieval practice (testing effect): Retrieval practice is learning by actively recalling information from memory, e.g. with practice tests or flashcards, instead of rereading. The testing effect shows that retrieval strengthens long-term retention more than restudying. Read more →
Reverse-scored item: A reverse-scored item is worded in the opposite direction of the construct, e.g. “I rarely feel stressed” in a stress scale. Its scores must be recoded before computing scale totals or Cronbach’s alpha. Read more →
Right to withdraw: The right to withdraw is a participant’s right to leave a study at any time without giving a reason or suffering any penalty, and often to have their data removed up to a stated point. Read more →
RStudio: RStudio is a widely used free editor (integrated development environment) for R. It shows scripts, console, data and plots side by side and supports R Markdown and Quarto documents that combine text, code and results. Read more →
Rubric: A rubric is a scoring guide that lists the criteria for an assignment and describes performance levels for each, such as “exemplary” to “inadequate.” Reading the rubric before writing shows what the grader will look for.
Sample: A sample is the subset of a population from which data are actually collected. Its size and selection method determine how well results can be generalized. Read more →
Sample size: Sample size (n) is the number of participants or observations in a study. In quantitative research it is determined by power analysis; in qualitative research by the principle of saturation and the depth required. Read more →
Sampling bias (selection bias): Sampling bias occurs when some members of the population are systematically more likely to be selected than others, so the sample does not represent the population and results are distorted. Read more →
Sampling distribution: A sampling distribution is the probability distribution of a statistic, such as the mean, across all possible samples of the same size from a population. Its standard deviation is the standard error.
Sampling frame: A sampling frame is the list or source from which a sample is drawn, such as a student registry. Gaps between the frame and the population cause coverage error. Read more →
Satisfactory academic progress (SAP): Satisfactory academic progress is the US standard students must meet to keep federal financial aid, typically a minimum GPA, a minimum share of attempted credits completed and a maximum time frame.
Saturation (data saturation): Saturation is the point in qualitative data collection at which new data no longer generate new codes, themes or insights. It is commonly used to justify the sample size in interview studies. Read more →
Scale (measurement instrument): A scale is a set of items that together measure a construct, with the item responses combined into a sum or mean score, such as a 10-item self-esteem scale. Its quality is judged by reliability and validity. Read more →
Scatterplot: A scatterplot plots pairs of values of two continuous variables as points on x and y axes. It reveals the direction, strength and form of a relationship as well as outliers. Read more →
Scholarly source: A scholarly source is a publication written by experts for an academic audience, typically peer-reviewed, with citations and a clear methodology. Examples are journal articles and academic books, as opposed to popular magazines or blogs.
Scholarship: A scholarship is a financial award for study that does not have to be repaid, granted for academic merit, talent, financial need or other criteria.
Scoping review: A scoping review maps the extent, range and nature of research on a broad topic and identifies gaps, without in-depth quality appraisal. It is often used before a systematic review to see what literature exists.
Second marker: A second marker is a UK academic who independently marks or moderates an assessment, such as a dissertation, to ensure fair and consistent grading. Disagreements are resolved by agreement or a third marker.
Secondary citation (indirect source): A secondary citation refers to a source you have not read yourself but know only through another author, e.g. (Piaget, 1952, as cited in Miller, 2018) in APA. It should be used sparingly; reading the original is preferred.
Secondary data analysis: Secondary data analysis is the analysis of data originally collected by others for a different purpose, such as national surveys or administrative records. It saves time but limits control over the variables.
Secondary source: A secondary source analyzes, interprets or summarizes primary sources, such as review articles, textbooks or biographies. It is useful for orientation but should not replace primary sources for key claims.
Selective coding: Selective coding is the final grounded theory phase in which a core category is chosen and all other categories are integrated around it into a coherent theory. Read more →
Self-explanation: Self-explanation is explaining to oneself how new information relates to what one already knows, or why each step of a solution works. It deepens understanding of worked examples and texts. Read more →
Self-plagiarism: Self-plagiarism is reusing substantial parts of your own previously submitted or published work without permission or disclosure. Universities often call it duplicate submission and treat it as an academic integrity violation. Read more →
Semester: A semester is one of two terms in an academic year, usually about 15 weeks of instruction plus exams. Most US universities use a fall and a spring semester.
Semi-structured interview: A semi-structured interview follows an interview guide of key questions but allows flexible order, follow-up questions and probes. It is the most common data collection method in qualitative student research. Read more →
Seminar: A seminar is a small, discussion-based class in which students prepare readings, present and debate topics with an instructor. It is common in upper-level and graduate courses.
Shapiro-Wilk test: The Shapiro-Wilk test checks whether a sample comes from a normally distributed population. A significant result (p < .05) suggests departure from normality; in large samples even trivial deviations become significant. Read more →
Significance level (alpha): The significance level α is the threshold probability, chosen before testing, for rejecting the null hypothesis, usually .05. It equals the accepted risk of a Type I error. Read more →
Signposting: Signposting is the use of words and phrases that guide readers through a text’s structure, such as “first,” “in contrast” or “this chapter examines.” It makes the logic of an argument easy to follow.
Similarity report: A similarity report is the output of text-matching software that highlights passages in a submission that match other sources. A high similarity score is not proof of plagiarism; instructors still judge whether matches are properly cited. Read more →
Simple random sampling: Simple random sampling is a method in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, for example by drawing random numbers from a complete list. Read more →
Skewness: Skewness measures the asymmetry of a distribution. In a right-skewed (positively skewed) distribution the tail extends to the right and the mean exceeds the median. Read more →
SMART goals: SMART goals are goals that are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Time-bound, e.g. “Draft 1,000 words of the methods chapter by Friday.” Read more →
Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling recruits initial participants who then refer others from their networks. It is useful for hard-to-reach groups but tends to produce homogeneous samples. Read more →
Social desirability bias: Social desirability bias is the tendency of respondents to answer in ways they think are socially acceptable, e.g. overreporting study hours. Anonymity and neutral wording help reduce it.
Spaced repetition: Spaced repetition is a review method in which material is revisited at increasing intervals, ideally just before it would be forgotten. Flashcard systems apply it automatically. Read more →
Spacing effect (distributed practice): The spacing effect is the finding that information is retained longer when study sessions are spread out over time rather than massed together. Spacing study across days or weeks beats cramming for long-term learning. Read more →
Spearman’s rank correlation (rho): Spearman’s rho measures the strength of a monotonic relationship between two variables using ranks. It suits ordinal data and non-normal or outlier-prone continuous data. Read more →
Split-half reliability: Split-half reliability is estimated by dividing a test into two halves, correlating the scores and adjusting with the Spearman-Brown formula. It is a forerunner of Cronbach’s alpha.
SPSS: SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics) is a commercial statistics program with menus and an optional syntax language. Students use it to run descriptive statistics, t-tests, ANOVA, correlation, regression and reliability analysis, especially in psychology, nursing, education and business. Read more →
Spurious correlation: A spurious correlation is a statistical association between two variables that is not causal, often because both are influenced by a third variable, e.g. ice cream sales and drowning rates both rising with temperature. Read more →
SQ3R method: SQ3R is a reading strategy with five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. It turns passive reading into active engagement with a textbook. Read more →
Standard deviation (SD): The standard deviation is the square root of the variance and expresses the typical distance of values from the mean in the original units. In a normal distribution about 68% of values lie within ±1 SD of the mean. Read more →
Standard error (SE): The standard error is the standard deviation of a statistic’s sampling distribution and measures how precisely it estimates the population value. The standard error of the mean equals SD divided by the square root of n. Read more →
Standard normal distribution: The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Any normally distributed variable can be converted to it with z-scores. Read more →
Stata: Stata is a commercial statistics package controlled mainly by commands and do-files. It is common in economics, political science, epidemiology and public health, especially for regression, panel data and survey analysis. Read more →
Statement of originality (declaration of authorship): A statement of originality is a signed declaration, required with many theses and assignments, that the work is the student’s own, that all sources are acknowledged and, increasingly, how AI tools were used. Read more →
Statistical power: Statistical power (1 − β) is the probability that a test correctly detects a real effect. It depends on effect size, sample size and significance level; .80 is a common target. Read more →
Statistical significance: A result is statistically significant when its p-value is below the chosen significance level, meaning it would be unlikely if the null hypothesis were true. Significance says nothing about practical importance. Read more →
Statistical software: Statistical software is a program for managing, analyzing and visualizing data, ranging from menu-driven packages to programming languages such as R and Python. Methods sections name the software and version used.
Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups (strata) such as year of study, then draws a random sample within each stratum. It ensures all subgroups are adequately represented. Read more →
Structured interview: A structured interview asks every participant the same questions in the same order with standardized wording, often with fixed answer categories. It maximizes comparability but limits depth.
Study abroad: Study abroad is a period of study at a foreign university, usually one semester or year, with credits transferred to the home degree. A learning agreement fixes the courses in advance.
Study group: A study group is a small group of students who meet regularly to review material, explain concepts to each other and quiz one another. It works best with preparation and a clear agenda. Read more →
Study schedule (revision timetable): A study schedule, called a revision timetable in the UK, is a plan that allocates topics to specific days and times before exams, building in spaced review and buffer time. Read more →
Summary (academic): A summary condenses the main ideas of a whole source or long passage into a much shorter text in your own words. Like a paraphrase, it must be cited, but it covers more material in less detail. Read more →
Summative assessment: Summative assessment evaluates learning at the end of a unit or course, such as a final exam, dissertation or term paper, and counts toward the final grade.
Survey research: Survey research collects data from a sample of people through questionnaires or structured interviews in order to describe or explain characteristics, attitudes or behaviors of a larger population. Read more →
Syllabus: A syllabus is the course document that outlines learning objectives, topics, schedule, readings, assignments, grading breakdown and policies on attendance, late work and academic integrity. In the US it is often treated as a contract between instructor and students.
Systematic review: A systematic review answers a focused question by searching for, selecting, appraising and synthesizing all relevant studies using a pre-specified, transparent and reproducible method, often reported according to the PRISMA guidelines. Read more →
Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling selects every k-th element from a list after a random start, e.g. every 20th student on an enrollment list. It approximates random sampling as long as the list has no periodic pattern. Read more →
T-test: A t-test compares means to determine whether a difference is statistically significant: one-sample (against a known value), independent-samples (two groups) or paired-samples (two related measurements). Read more →
Taguette: Taguette is a free, open-source tool for qualitative coding. You highlight passages in documents and assign tags; its deliberately simple design suits small projects and teaching. Read more →
Take-home exam: A take-home exam is an exam completed outside the classroom within a set period, from hours to days. It usually allows use of sources but requires individual work under the honor code.
Teaching assistant (TA): A teaching assistant is usually a graduate student who supports a course by leading discussion sections or labs, grading assignments and holding office hours under a faculty member’s supervision.
Term paper: A term paper is a substantial written assignment, typically 10–20 pages, that students complete over an academic term on a defined topic. It is graded as a major part of the course and follows academic conventions for sources and citation.
Tertiary source: A tertiary source compiles and condenses primary and secondary sources, for example encyclopedias, dictionaries and handbooks. It is helpful for getting an overview but rarely cited in academic papers.
Test anxiety (exam anxiety): Test anxiety is intense worry and physical stress before or during exams that impairs performance. Thorough preparation, practice tests under exam conditions and relaxation techniques help reduce it. Read more →
Test statistic: A test statistic is a value calculated from sample data, such as t, F or χ², that summarizes how far the data deviate from the null hypothesis. It is compared with its distribution to obtain the p-value. Read more →
Test-retest reliability: Test-retest reliability is the consistency of scores when the same test is given to the same people at two points in time. It is expressed as a correlation and assumes the trait itself is stable. Read more →
Thematic analysis: Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns of meaning (themes) in qualitative data. Braun and Clarke’s reflexive approach has six phases: familiarization, coding, generating, reviewing, defining and writing up themes. Read more →
Theme: A theme is a pattern of shared meaning across a dataset, organized around a central idea that captures something important in relation to the research question. Themes are interpretive, not just topic summaries. Read more →
Theoretical framework: A theoretical framework is the set of theories and concepts a study uses to frame its research question, guide data collection and interpret results. It explains why the researcher expects certain relationships.
Theoretical sampling: Theoretical sampling is a grounded theory strategy in which the researcher chooses further cases based on concepts emerging from the analysis so far, continuing until theoretical saturation. Read more →
Theoretical saturation: Theoretical saturation is reached in grounded theory when further data no longer add new properties to categories. It signals that theoretical sampling can stop. Read more →
Thesis (academic work): A thesis is an extended piece of original research submitted for a degree. In the US, “thesis” usually means a master’s or honors project and “dissertation” the doctoral work; in the UK the terms are often reversed or used interchangeably.
Thesis advisor (supervisor): A thesis advisor, called a supervisor in the UK, is the faculty member who guides a student through a thesis or dissertation, giving feedback on research design, drafts and progress.
Thesis defense (dissertation defense): A thesis defense is an oral examination in which a candidate presents their thesis or dissertation and answers questions from a committee. In the US, the PhD defense is often partly public. Read more →
Thesis statement: A thesis statement is a one- or two-sentence claim, usually at the end of the introduction, that states the central argument a paper will defend. It is specific and arguable, e.g. “Remote work raises productivity for routine tasks but lowers it for collaborative ones.” Read more →
Thick description: Thick description is a detailed account of a context, participants and behaviors including their meanings, which allows readers to understand findings and judge their transferability. Read more →
Time blocking: Time blocking is scheduling specific blocks of time in a calendar for particular tasks, such as “Tuesday 9–11: literature review.” It turns to-do lists into concrete plans. Read more →
Topic sentence: A topic sentence is the sentence, usually the first in a paragraph, that states the paragraph’s main point and links it to the thesis. Each following sentence should support it.
Transcript: A transcript is the official record of a student’s academic history, listing courses, grades, credits, GPA or marks and degrees awarded. It is issued by the registrar and required for transfers and graduate applications.
Transcription: Transcription is the conversion of recorded speech, such as interviews or focus groups, into written text according to defined rules. Verbatim transcripts are the basis for qualitative analysis. Read more →
Transferability: Transferability is the qualitative counterpart of external validity: the extent to which findings may apply to other contexts. Researchers support it with thick description so readers can judge similarity. Read more →
Triangulation: Triangulation is the use of multiple data sources, methods, researchers or theories to study the same phenomenon. Converging results strengthen credibility; divergent results invite deeper analysis. Read more →
Trustworthiness (qualitative research): Trustworthiness is the overall quality standard for qualitative research proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985), comprising credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability as alternatives to validity and reliability. Read more →
Tuition: Tuition is the fee charged by a college or university for instruction, usually per term or per credit hour. In the US, public institutions charge in-state students less than out-of-state students.
Turnitin: Turnitin is text-matching software used by many universities to compare student submissions with web pages, publications and earlier student papers. It produces a similarity report; instructors decide whether matches are plagiarism. Read more →
Tutorial (UK): In UK universities, a tutorial is a small-group or one-to-one teaching session in which students discuss work with a tutor. At Oxford and Cambridge, tutorials (supervisions) are central to undergraduate teaching.
Two-tailed test: A two-tailed test checks for an effect in either direction. It is the default in most research because it does not presuppose the direction of an effect. Read more →
Two-way ANOVA (factorial ANOVA): A two-way ANOVA examines the effects of two factors on a dependent variable at once, including their interaction, e.g. teaching method and class size on exam scores. Read more →
Type I error (false positive): A Type I error is rejecting a true null hypothesis, i.e. concluding there is an effect when there is none. Its probability equals the significance level α. Read more →
Type II error (false negative): A Type II error is failing to reject a false null hypothesis, i.e. missing a real effect. Its probability is β; small samples and small effects increase it. Read more →
Typology (type building): A typology groups cases into types that are internally similar and externally different on key characteristics, e.g. types of student learning strategies.
UK credit (CATS credit): In the UK credit framework, one credit represents about 10 notional hours of learning. A full-time undergraduate year carries 120 credits, and two UK credits are generally equivalent to one ECTS credit.
Undergraduate: An undergraduate is a student pursuing a first degree, such as an associate or bachelor’s degree. In the US, undergraduates are called freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors in years one to four.
Unstructured interview: An unstructured interview has no fixed question list; the researcher explores a topic conversationally, following the participant’s lead. It yields rich data but is hard to compare across participants.
Upper second-class honours (2:1): An upper second-class honours degree, or 2:1, is the UK classification typically awarded for an average of 60–69%. It is a common entry requirement for UK master’s and graduate schemes.
Validity: Validity is the extent to which a method measures what it claims to measure and supports the conclusions drawn from it. Key types are construct, content, criterion, internal and external validity. Read more →
Variable: A variable is a characteristic that can take different values across people, objects or time, such as age, test score or major. Research examines how variables are distributed and related. Read more →
Variance: Variance is the average squared deviation of values from the mean, indicating spread. The sample variance divides by n − 1; its square root is the standard deviation. Read more →
Verbatim transcription: Verbatim transcription records speech word for word, including fillers, repetitions and pauses as required by the transcription rules. Clean verbatim omits fillers and false starts for readability. Read more →
Viva voce (viva): A viva voce is an oral examination, especially the UK PhD viva, in which the candidate defends the thesis before an internal and an external examiner. Outcomes include pass, pass with minor or major corrections, or fail. Read more →
Vulnerable populations: Vulnerable populations are groups that need extra protection in research because their capacity to consent or resist pressure may be limited, such as minors, prisoners or people with cognitive impairments. Read more →
Weighted mean: A weighted mean multiplies each value by a weight reflecting its importance, sums the products and divides by the sum of weights. A GPA is a weighted mean of grade points weighted by credit hours. Read more →
Welch’s t-test: Welch’s t-test is a version of the independent samples t-test that does not assume equal variances. Many statisticians recommend it as the default for comparing two group means. Read more →
Wilcoxon signed-rank test: The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric test for two related measurements, such as before and after scores. It is the alternative to the paired samples t-test. Read more →
Within-subjects design (repeated measures): A within-subjects design exposes every participant to all conditions, comparing each person with themselves. It needs fewer participants but must control order effects, e.g. by counterbalancing.
Works Cited: Works Cited is the title of the source list in MLA style. It lists only sources actually cited in the paper, alphabetically by the author’s last name, with hanging indents. Read more →
Writing center: A writing center is a university service where trained tutors help students at any stage of the writing process, from brainstorming to revising. It is common at US and UK universities and does not proofread or write papers for students.
Z-score (standard score): A z-score shows how many standard deviations a value lies above or below the mean: z = (x − mean) / SD. It allows comparison of scores from different scales. Read more →
Zotero: Zotero is a free, open-source reference manager run by a non-profit. It saves sources from the browser, stores PDFs and notes, and inserts citations and reference lists into Word, LibreOffice and Google Docs in thousands of styles. Read more →